Writing Well; How to write anything well

Styles

1. Informative: like the news, just giving information. This is also called expository style.

2. Persuasive: trying to convince one's reader that your idea is superior to other ideas. This requires:

a. at least two points, given in the introductory paragraph

b. at least two supporting "evidences" for each point

c. a short summary of the points.

3. Narrative: writing a story. All stories must have:

a. Setting (time & place). The setting must be elucidated at the beginning of a narrative

b. Plot (problem, solution). After the solution to the problem, the narrative can have a cute, terse ending.

4. Artistic: like prose and poetry.

Registers

1. Formal. This register requires:

a. no use of slang

b. avoidance of idiomatic expressions and phrasal verbs (as much as possible). It is 99.9% possible, but you may not know how to do it, so, I say, "As much as you possibly can."

c. avoidance of literary forms, such as hyperbole, alliteration, apostrophe, sarcasm, irony, etc.

2. Informal. This register allows:

a. use of slang

b. use of idiomatic expressions and phrasal verbs

c. use of literary forms, such as hyperbole, alliteration, apostrophe, sarcasm, irony, etc.

3. Technical. This register requires:

a. use of formal register

b. use of proper nomenclature/terminology (of the technical field that applies)

4. Non-technical. This register allows:

a. use of informal register

b. use of lay-persons' terminology

5. Academic. This register requires:

a. use of formal register

b. avoidance of active voice as much as possible; use of passive voice as much as possible.

c. avoidance of contractions

d. avoidance of absolute statements that cannot be substantiated.

6. Non-academic. This register allows:

a. use of informal register

b. either voice (active or passive)

c. contractions

d. hyperbole or generalizations

Cohesiveness [Leon Priz, 2003]

Cohesiveness is composed of two things: cohesion and coherence

COHESIVENESS
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COHESION COHERENCE

DEFINITIONS:

1. COHESIVENESS [Me, 2003]: Cohesiveness includes both cohesion and coherence

2. COHESION: linguistically "sticking" words, sentences, and paragraphs together, logically.

[linguistically means grammatically and lexically]

3. COHERENCE: semantically "sticking" words, sentences, and paragraphs together, logically.

[semantically means meaningfully]

EXAMPLES:

First, let me deal with cohesion.

Please look at the following paragraph:

Frogs are amphibians. Giraffes are mammals. It is green with brown spots. They live in Africa.

That example lacks cohesion for several reasons:

- Cohesion Problem 1: Why is the author writing about amphibians AND mammals in the same text? There is no linguistic devices to "tie" or "connect" the two together.

- Cohesion Problem 2: In the third sentence, the pronoun "it" is used, but we have no idea what "it" might refer to.

- Cohesion Problem 3: In the fourth sentence, the pronoun "they" is used, but we don't know if it is referring to frogs or giraffes.

Sample Correction:

There two kinds of animals that shall be discussed in this text. One kind is amphibian, and the other kind is mammal. An example of an amphibian is a frog. An example of a mammal is a giraffe. Both frogs and giraffes have spots; and thus, they are not in different categories because of their appearance. Both frogs and giraffes live in Africa, so they are not categorized differently because of region.... etc.

Ah! Now we have cohesion (and coherence)!

According to Halliday & Hasan (1976) as reported by Carrel (1982) in TESOL QUARTERLY, coherence comes only as a result of proper register and proper cohesion. Carrel is quick to point out that it's not so simple (and she quotes a lot of other famous researchers).

Let's K.I.S.S. (Keep It Simple, Silly)

For simplification, I like to explain it in terms of...

(1) sentence structure

(2) paragraph structure, and

(3) textual structure.

First: Sentence structure
Sentence structure includes syntax, clauses, and phrases, such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, and prepositional phrases. This is commonly called "grammar".

Second: Paragraph structure
Paragraph structure is different for narratives. I will not discuss narratives here. For non-fictions texts, paragraph structure includes a topic sentence that is supported by two or more sentences. The sentences must be linked together with connectives (conjunctions).

Third: Textual structure
Textual structure is all about linking paragraphs together and putting paragraphs in logical order. Here is the pattern that you should follow when writing a narrative or a non-fiction article.

General Writing Templates

Narrative Writing
(Story Writing)

Writing a Persuasive Paper or Essay

Non-fiction Writing
Writing a Report

I. 1^st paragraph: SETTING
       a. Setting (Time and Place)
              1. TIME: Time doesn't mean clock time (although that might be important, depending on the plot). NO. Rather it means, tell the reader the year and the season. You don't have to give the exact date, unless you really want to.
              2. Describe in detail the place.
              3. Mention the main character.

II. 2^nd paragraph: CHARACTER
       a. Character development
              1. Describe your main character in great detail.
              2. You may want to describe other characters as well.

III. PROBLEM
a. Every narrative must have a problem and a solution. You will make new paragraphs only if/when the time or place changes.

IV. SOLUTION or Resolution
a. If there is no solution to the problem, there must be a resolution. A resolution is what happened as a result of the problem not being solved. You will make new paragraphs only if/when the time or place changes.

V. ENDING
a. A common fairytale ending is, "And they lived happily ever after." However, your ending should be more creative and imaginative.

VI. SHARE
a. I think it is very important to share one's work and get feedback (both positive and critique-like feedback). We can all improve our writing skills.

SUGGESTION:
Make a Title Page
with Title
and "by ______________";
and illustrate.

I. 1st paragraph: Introduction
       a. Your first sentence should be an attention-getter! It should get your reader's attention.
       b. Introduce your topic to the reader.
       c. Give your opinion (briefly)
       d. Some writers may wish to hide their opinion until the end, but I suggest you don't.

II. 2nd paragraph: Pro (support)
a. You must support your opinion with 2 or 3 examples (3 is better).

III. 3rd paragraph: Con (against)
a. Give some of the examples which are against your opinion.

IV. 4th paragraph: Counter Strike
a. Counter the "cons". Give your reason why the cons are not correct or strong enough.

V. 5th paragraph: Conclusion
a. Give your opinion (or restate your opinion.
b. Summarize your "pros" (support) very briefly. (I can do this in one sentence).

VI. Sources
       a. For this style of writing, MLA format is used to document one's sources of information.
       b. For younger learners, just have them make a list of their resources/sources at the end of the document. It would be good for them to get into the habit of documenting sources, because plagiarism is taken very seriously in upper grades.
       c. As to how many different sources are required, that is entirely up to the teacher or professor. When I'm writing for myself, it takes as many as it takes to get the point across. The general rule is: the more sources the better.

I. 1st paragraph: Introduction
a. Maybe start with an attention-getter. (I really like to do this, but it is not a requirement).
b. TELL THEM WHAT YOU'RE GOING TO TELL THEM. (Give a brief introduction to what you will cover in your report).

II. Body
a. TELL THEM. This will take several paragraphs or possibly even several pages (depending upon which grade you are in). Each paragraph will deal with a certain aspect of the topic you have chosen. (For upper grades, make sure you are following APA format, to document your sources along the way.)

III. Summary
a. TELL THEM WHAT YOU JUST TOLD THEM. Give a brief summary of all that you just wrote in the body. I can usually do this in two or three sentences.

IV. Sources
       a. With Non-fiction writing, the writer is usually asked to provide sources of information used in the author's writing, so as to not be accused of plagiarism.
       b. RE: "Bibliography"
The word "bibliography" has fallen out of use, because the word "biblio" means book in Greek and nowadays, most sources of information don't even come from books.
       c. RE: Resources
The words "resources" and "sources" are used pretty-much interchangeably. Personally, I'm partial to using "Sources", but ask your teacher/professor which one he/she prefers.
       d. For this style of writing, use APA format for documenting sources
       e. For younger learners, just have them make a list of their sources at the end of the document under the heading "Sources". It's good to get into the habit of citing sources at a young age.

Important: Paragraphs must be "connected" with connecting phrases as well, as best as one can.

SAMPLES

Prepare for ORAL EXAMS

Pronunciation

Sample Essays

Oral Exams (Interviews)

Pronunciation / Intonation